SINGAPORE – In January, as the threat of a TikTok ban loomed in the US over security concerns, an unexpected trend took off.

Calling themselves “TikTok refugees”, hordes of the app’s estimated 170 million American users began learning Chinese as they flocked to another Chinese-owned short video platform – Xiaohongshu or RedNote.

This has subsequently sparked a wave of cross-cultural exchanges, from a new user in New York asking about university tuition in China, to Chinese users asking Americans about their careers and for help with their English homework.

On Jan 14, language learning mobile application Duolingo reported a 216 per cent increase in new US-based Chinese learners compared with the previous year. Requests to Duolingo for the number of learners prior and after the surge went unanswered.

Even without this digital migration frenzy, globalisation and the steady rise in international travel have long driven interest in cross-language communication.

Mobile apps have further fuelled this trend, offering accessible, on-the-go options, transforming language learning from a classroom-based experience into an interactive, gamified experience.

The global language learning app market, valued at US$4.96 billion (S$6.7 billion) in 2024, is projected to reach US$16.69 billion by 2032, according to Business Research Insights.

Advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) have supercharged language learning apps, offering more personalised, adaptive learning pathways that are more engaging and effective.

AI-powered features can, among other things, analyse users’ progress, identify weak areas and provide tailored practice exercises for improvement.

But not everyone is a believer. While apps make learning languages convenient and accessible, there is a growing debate about their effectiveness in helping users achieve true fluency.

Mr Muhammad Haziq Jani, 34, who started learning Turkish on Duolingo nearly two years ago, takes issue with the app’s eagerness to gamify the learning process and push users towards paid options.

“To be very honest, if you are new to a language, it’s nearly impossible for you to pick up the grammar and understand how a language is used in its daily context,” said the senior analyst.

Unlike formal language classes, where teachers explain grammar usage and the significance of word placement within sentences, Duolingo lacks such in-depth explanations, Mr Haziq added.

Mr Muhammad Haziq Jani, who started learning Turkish on Duolingo, takes issue with its eagerness to gamify the learning process and push users towards paid options. PHOTO: THE STRAITS TIMES

Many language learning apps offer sentence building and vocabulary exercises in the form of drag and drop interactions, translations or multiple-choice questions.

They come with intuitive interfaces with animated characters that guide users through lessons or real-life conversations with clear text and audio prompts, to make the learning experience more memorable.

Mr Haziq did not realise that verbs are always at the end of a Turkish sentence, until he was told of this when he was in Turkey.

“Sentences would have entirely different meanings altogether if I construct them the way I do for English,” he said, adding that being unaware about such basics can be “fatal”.

Mr Qamar Tahasildar, 35, who uses Duolingo to learn Japanese, agreed that the app has its flaws.

The strategy and data consultant said: “There are multiple ways of saying ‘I’ in Japanese. From time to time, the app will introduce a new way of saying ‘I’ without teaching you first. It creates confusion as you might mistake it for an entirely different word rather than another way of saying ‘I’.”

But this does not mean he has written off language learning apps.

“I think apps are complementary to one another. They can be used more as an aid or additional resource to formal lessons,” Mr Tahasildar said.

For instance, he uses Anki, a studying app with flash card functions, to help him memorise new Japanese words. He also uses Pimsleur, which consists of recorded conversations between native speakers that can be played repeatedly, to get a handle on natural speech patterns and rhythms.

Mr Haziq, meanwhile, supplements his learning with subtitled YouTube videos of native speakers conversing in Turkish to improve his speaking and listening skills.

“I don’t want to downplay the app, as Duolingo did help me get by in certain parts of Turkey where no one understands English,” he said. “I can order a bowl of soup or ask for coffee, but definitely not enough to haggle over prices or appear local to gain some favourable treatment.”

Associate Professor Victor Lim from the National Institute of Education said language learning apps offer self-directed learning, which can be a powerful motivator for learners.

Research has shown that language is best learnt through interaction with others, while most language learning apps focus on drill and practice.

“This is where AI can offer new possibilities,” said Prof Lim. AI-powered chatbots can help learners practise a new language by having spoken conversations at their fluency level, boosting their competency and confidence as they progress.

Mr Haziq believes language learning apps – AI-driven or not – should be more social, allowing learners to form communities and motivate one another, “like in a classroom – you are not alone”.

Learning in groups has tangible benefits, such as being able to share tips, resources and even recent travel experiences, he said. While Duolingo has a “celebrate your friends’ learning milestones” feature, it feels distant, especially if friends are learning a completely different language.

“If language learning app developers don’t do something about this soon, there will be other digital tools that can overtake them and make learning even more efficient,” said Mr Haziq.

Mr Haziq supplements his learning with subtitled YouTube videos of native speakers conversing in Turkish to improve his speaking and listening skills. PHOTO: THE STRAITS TIMES

The missing cultural nuance

Indeed, the foreign language learners whom The Straits Times spoke to agreed that apps can kick-start their learning journey, but something more substantial, like a community, is necessary to keep them engaged.

Ms Abigail, 26, a content specialist who did not want to give her full name, turned to Tofugu, a Japanese culture and language blog, and its sister app WaniKani, when her Japanese teacher could no longer give her lessons.

She said WaniKani leverages spaced repetition to help learners memorise new vocabulary.

When learners are introduced to a new word written in kanji characters, WaniKani provides its meaning, pronunciation and how it can be paired with other words to form new meaning. It also gives examples of how the word can be used in actual sentences.

The newly learnt words are systematically reviewed at intervals to reinforce memory until they are firmly embedded – or, in WaniKani’s term, “burnt” – into learners’ long-term memory.

Ms Abigail passed her Japanese proficiency test during her university years, relying solely on Tofugu and WaniKani.

She credits the supportive community of learners behind Tofugu and WaniKani for helping her achieve this.

“The community helps me see language learning differently,” she said. “They share useful websites and books, and discuss their methods for improving proficiency. Some members even organise book clubs or movie clubs, where people from around the world discuss them together.”

To hone her conversational skills, Ms Abigail turns to another app called italki, which also houses a vibrant community of certified tutors and learners whom she can befriend. The real-time interactions help her gain confidence and “puts herself out there” to practise speaking Japanese.

“When I was in Japan, even though I was speaking what I’d call ‘broken Japanese’, I found myself conversing with the locals and making do with what I knew. I was not afraid to just go ahead,” Ms Abigail said.

For some learners, cultural immersion is the key to mastering a language. Ms Farah Wahidah, 29, an avid fan of Korean dramas and shows, was frustrated at having to wait a week or two for subtitled episodes to be released.

She decided to pick up Korean so that she could enjoy new episodes as soon as they became available. She started matching on-screen dialogue with the subtitles and gradually improved her understanding until she no longer needed them.

Remarkably, she never attended language classes or used language learning apps, but instead learnt the language entirely through K-dramas and conversing with Korean friends.

“When I went to polytechnic, I started making Korean friends. They taught me how to speak the language through casual, everyday conversations,” she said.

“Sometimes, when they used a Korean phrase I didn’t know, I would also ask them, ‘What did you say?’, and they would explain it to me.”

Her dedication paid off. While working at a Korean beauty company, her Korean colleague, who had grown up in the US, relied on her to translate Korean words into English.

In South Korea, her fluency also led to some instances of mistaken identity. She said: “Once, in a provision shop, I asked the assistant where to find something in Korean. When she turned around and saw I wasn’t Korean, she was surprised!”

Mr Haziq’s colleague Claribel Low, 30, who uses Duolingo to learn Korean, said providing appropriate cultural context is another significant component missing from language learning apps.

“I find that a lot of times, in a classroom setting, you are not just learning the language itself – the teachers will also explain certain cultural features in the language,” Ms Low said.

“This is very useful in helping you memorise certain vocabularies. I suppose language learning apps could spend 10 minutes to 15 minutes doing so, but they don’t.”

Furthermore, Ms Low said it is challenging to perfect one’s pronunciation on the apps. For Duolingo, speaking practice involves users reading a sentence in the language they are learning into their mobile phones or via a mic on their laptops.

She said: “I don’t know how the app is trained. Does it accept a wide range of pronunciation and as long as you sound somewhat similar, it will take it that you have passed the exercise?

“It seems so. Honestly, you don’t get any corrections. You never know whether you have pronounced the sentence correctly.”

A recent review led by Prof Lim found that learning vocabulary in isolation – common in many apps – has limited effectiveness.

The use of contextual learning helps learners understand how words are used in real-life scenarios, making the knowledge more practical and memorable.

The review concluded that genuine language learning takes time, with vocabulary best acquired through repeated exposure and gradual review.

Why are language learning apps still so popular?

Despite their limitations, language learning apps remain popular.

Mr Tahasildar said: “It’s very simple. You are on the MRT going to work. Instead of listening to music, you do a language lesson on Duolingo. Even on my busiest day, this just takes two minutes, and I don’t miss any practice. It’s very useful.”

It helps that many language learning apps are free or inexpensive, allowing users to try multiple languages before committing to more intensive study.

On NHK’s News Web Easy, Mr Tahasildar reads simplified Japanese news stories tailored and published for language learners by the platform. PHOTO: THE STRAITS TIMES

Moreover, many apps incorporate habit-forming features like reminders and a streak system that keeps track of the number of consecutive days users complete a lesson.

This gives learners a sense of accomplishment and helps them stay motivated to continue their learning journey. They are prominent features in language learning apps like Duolingo.

“The streak function works for me because if I have not cleared my lesson for the day, I will start thinking, ‘Oh, there is something I need to do, what is it?’” said Ms Low, whose current streak is around 1,990 days, or more than five years.

So, the decision to use a language learning app – and how much one gets out of it – really boils down to a learner’s personal goals.

“If your goal is the ability to have a basic conversation whenever you go on a holiday, an app may work for you,” said Mr Tahasildar. “But if your goal is to master the language or spend time in that country, you will have to find more avenues to support your learning.”

Mr Haziq quips that language learning apps are like stretching exercises for office workers.

“Ideally, you should have an active lifestyle, but if your job keeps you sedentary, those exercises are a good alternative. Language learning apps are those ‘stretching exercises’. We want to learn a new language and we don’t have time for lessons, so why not use a language learning app?”

Asia News Network/The Straits Times